Making Knowledge Accessible

Academics in STEM education research have proposed several frameworks or models to guide the integration of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplinary content and practices. While such frameworks are useful for curriculum design and evaluation, a framework that discusses the pedagogical practices of integrated STEM lessons could better support teachers in understanding STEM lesson goals and enactment. We argue that STEM learning goals should include conceptual, social, and epistemic goals. Correspondingly, STEM pedagogical practices should encompass these aspects. This chapter proposes a framework of integrated STEM Pedagogical Practices for Lesson Enactment, that is the iSTEM PP-LE framework which highlights conceptual/procedural, epistemic, and social aspects of integrated STEM teaching by introducing four teaching areas within lesson enactment in the Singapore Teaching Practice framework. These four teaching areas for integrated STEM teaching contrast with four existing teaching areas. The iSTEM PP-LE framework contributes to existing research in STEM education by furthering a new area of work in STEM education that provides guidance for STEM teachers’ curriculum decision-making during planning and enactment to achieve the intended goals and outcomes of integrated STEM education.

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Ong, Y. S., Teo, T. W., & Tan, A. L. (2024). A Framework for Pedagogical Practices in Integrated Stem Lessons. In Developing Future-ready Learners for a Global Age (pp. 117-129). Routledge.

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This chapter documents the types of questions raised by both teachers and students when engaging in integrated STEM problem solving and the level of reasoning of their responses. Questions play a critical role in creative thinking, conceptual learning, and problem-solving. Using deductive coding, we identified questions asked over the course of 36 lessons where Grade 8 students presented their ideas after engagement with integrated STEM problem solving and designed prototypes using one of two teaching approaches. The questions were then coded as ontic (simple or complex), causal or epistemic. Subsequentially, the responses of students to the questions were coded as pre-structural, uni-structural, multi-structural, relational, or extended abstract according to the SOLO taxonomy. Although we did not find statistical differences in the questions raised between approaches, our results show that ontic questions were the most used during integrated STEM problem solving while epistemic questions were least used. Students’ responses displaying transfers of knowledge at the extended abstract level of understanding were least evident out of all the levels of the SOLO taxonomy. Our findings support prior research that basic ontic questions are the most commonly used in class.

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Regunathan, N., Tan, A. L., & Koh, J. (2024). Questioning Patterns in STEM Learning: A Case Study. In A Diversity of Pathways Through Science Education (pp. 29-51). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.

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The implementation of STEM is fraught with challenges for teachers as they struggle in the transformation from being single disciplinary-based teachers to cross-disciplinary trailblazers. Since the 1960s, there have been reports on how teachers find it difficult to cope during times of curriculum reform. The reasons are varied, but the unwanted ‘side-effects’ include teachers being deskilled and feeling dejected about the education system, resulting in high turnover. With the inundation of narratives about the promises of STEM education and how teachers need to adapt and prepare students for the 4th industrial revolution, how do teachers digest the narratives and take on this new challenge? What impact does this new wave of education goals have on primary science teachers who are mostly not trained in the STEM disciplines? This paper reports on a case study of a primary school teacher in Singapore who participated in a larger study and made efforts to introduce integrated STEM to his students. We followed the journey of this teacher who led a team of teachers in his school to learn, then teach, an integrated STEM curriculum that entails coding with humanistic outcomes. The findings illuminated his positive thinking about STEM teaching, the STEM capital he had harnessed to enact the curriculum, and the ways he empowered himself to carry out the curriculum effectively. The findings could offer insights for the enablers of STEM curriculum making even as teacher agency is circumscribed by traditional disciplinary and personal structures.

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Teo, T. W., Tan, A. L., Soo, L. M. J., & Tan, T. T. M. (2023). Taking the Lead in STEM: A Case Study of a Singapore Primary Science Teacher's Attempt at STEM. In Cross-disciplinary STEM Learning for Asian Primary Students (pp. 241-257). Routledge.

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Makerspaces have risen in prominence in the recent five years as sites for the acquisition of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) competencies. Often spoken in the same breath is the supposed ability of STEM and associated practices to ‘change the world’, in deliberately disruptive ways, and to euphemistically ‘drive the economy’ while at it.

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Tan, M. (in press). Innovation to what end? Makerspaces as sites for science education. In Bryan, L., & Tobin, K. (Eds.), Critical Issues and Bold Visions for Science Education: The Road Ahead. (PP. 37-55). Leiden: Brill.

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As we move forward with the new agendas emphasised in many major national reports (e.g., National Research Council [NRC], 2012a, 2012b), including the Framework for K-12 Science Education (henceforth referred to as the Framework ) (NRC, 2012a) and the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics ( CCSS-M ) (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010), we find ourselves entering new waters for what the agendas mean for PreK-16 STEM education.

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Bismack, A.S., Ong, Y.S., Tahirsylaj, A., & Duschl, R.A. (2016). Summary: Driving change forward. In R. A. Duschl & A. S. Bismark (Eds.), Reconceptualizing STEM education: The central role of practices (PP. 307-327). New York: Routledge.

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Tan, M. (2017). Makerspaces in Singapore: Pedagogic principles for nurturing innovativeness. In Chai, C. S., Koh, J. H. L., & Teo, Y. H. (Eds.), Technology-enhanced 21st Century Learning (PP. 284-299). Singapore: Pearson.

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This article presents findings from the document analysis of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) lesson plans written and enacted in Southeast Asian classrooms aimed at providing integrative learning experiences for students. The authors argue that the culture of STEM education is embodied in teacher-designed STEM lesson plans or cultural apparatuses. The authors applied Sewell’s theory of culture to unpack the cultural embodiments (physical and abstract elements) embedded in six STEM lesson plans comprising lesson schedules, worksheets, and handouts. The findings showed that certain categories of culture were more evident in specific components of a STEM lesson package. The article contributes to the relatively nascent literature that, to date, has not closely examined teacher-designed integrated STEM curricula using a cultural lens. The study also has implications for STEM teachers to consider making cultural embodiments and practices more visible during their lesson planning and framing of STEM curriculum.

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Teo, T. W., & Mabulo, S. J. S. B. (2024). Examining ‘STEM Education as Culture’through an Analysis of Lesson Plans as Cultural Apparatus. Research in Integrated STEM Education, 2(2), 147-181.

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Science centres are informal learning spaces embedded with artefacts embodying mediational affordances. This exploratory and small-scale mixed methods study juxtaposes eye-tracking technologies and qualitative interviews to examine how visitors to a gallery navigated this space and interacted with different artefacts. A total of 15 visitors to the science centre gallery, Energy Story, participated in the study. The findings revealed inconclusive results about the directionality of their navigation. The mediational affordances of the artefacts, as interpreted from the interactive elements and interaction of the visitors and interviews, suggested that it was better to distribute the mediational affordances across a few artefacts in an exhibit rather than have one artefact embody several affordances. The concept of “mediational threshold” was suggested as a topic for future study. The findings contributed to the academic literature on eye-tracking studies at science centres. They also provided ideas for science centre curators and teachers who bring students with diverse learning needs to this mediational space.

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Teo, T. W., Loh, Z. H. J., Kee, L. E., Soh, G., & Wambeck, E. (2024). Mediational Affordances at a Science Centre Gallery: An Exploratory and Small Study Using Eye Tracking and Interviews. Research in Science Education, 1-21.

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Guiding students’ STEM problem solving entails dynamic processes driven by changes in real-world contexts. To understand these processes, we aimed to identify the formation and influence of ‘norms’ as shared behaviour patterns desirable in STEM problem-solving. To this end, 10 sessions of STEM lessons for secondary students were carried out, and we collected data comprising lesson observation videos, fieldnotes, interviews, and photographs of students’ artifacts. The data were analysed based on three features of norms: justifiability, sharing, and behaviours. The results report three epistemic norms in STEM problem-solving. First, the norm of ‘defining a real-world problem that is useful and accessible’ was found. While the students searched for useful problems in their everyday lives, they also needed to ensure that these problems were scoped such that they had the capacity to manage them. The second norm was ‘designing creative and concrete prototypes’. Students’ prototypes were expected to be creative in addressing the established problems and to be developed in a concrete manner. The last norm identified was ‘testing and revising in more iterative and feasible ways’. The students tested their models repeatedly in a manner aligning with their skills and the materials provided. Based on the findings, educational implications are discussed in terms of understanding and facilitating STEM problem-solving.

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Chang, J., Teo, T. W., & Tan, A. L. (2025). Formation and Influence of Epistemic Norms in Integrated STEM Problem-Solving: a Study of Singapore Secondary Students’ STEM Inquiry. Research in Science Education, 1-28.

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Narratives about STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education are strongly connected with conversations about developing learners' humanistic knowledge and their ability to listen with understanding and empathy. This is challenging because learners need to find resonance through first-hand contextual experiences with the issues at hand. In this paper, we describe and discuss an activity that was enacted to actively engage 74 teachers from Thailand in constructing a prototype cutting device for the blind to prepare food themselves. This activity underscores important considerations for inclusive design and offers affordances for teachers to develop their learners' inclusive mindsets. Findings were generated from voice recordings of reflections and written reflections collected after the activity. We highlight the importance of creating opportunities for learning to listen and resonate with others' experiences and argue that such STEM activities can offer a platform for learners to develop humanistic qualities such as social empathy.

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Teo, T. W., Tan, A. L., & Choy, B. H. (2024). “It feels different when blindfolded”: Developing social empathy through inclusive designs in STEM. STEM Education.

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This paper examines professional growth of a STEM teacher from the entrepreneurial frame. Using a personal narrative together with a STEM/science lesson package developed by the participant teacher, we unpack a teacher’s professional growth by interpreting her beliefs and actions using characteristics of entrepreneurial thinking. Our analysis and interpretations revealed that risk-taking forms of behaviour manifest as willingness to take calculated risks to make ‘cold’ calls to different organisations to request sharing or learning opportunities. The motivation to succeed stems from a belief that STEM education can improve the lives of students and that all students can learn. Passion for the discipline of STEM and personal beliefs to uplift students propel the teacher to persevere in her professional development despite busy schedules and conflicting demands of school and home. This study and its findings bring a fresh perspective to the idea of teacher agency from an entrepreneurial lens positioning teachers as self-empowered as compared to individuals who depended on the system to provide enablers for professional growth in the teaching profession. While self-empowerment to enact a curriculum is catalytic, teachers’ capacity for change is circumscribed by teachers’ capacity to act and accumulate practical knowledge. These entrepreneurial actions of successful STEM teachers could be used to facilitate teacher reflection on their professional journey. As the narrative approach sought to present an in-depth examination of the relationship between entrepreneurial thinking and teacher professional growth, the generalisability power of the assertions made is limited. The entrepreneurial thinking framework together with narratives from successful teachers enable teachers to locate where they are in their personal professional development and where they can aspire to move towards in their personal goal settings. Future research can examine teachers’ levels of entrepreneurial thinking and compare them against narratives of their professional growth to distil the behaviours that could lead to growth of entrepreneurial thinking. Curriculum leaders can also use the ideas of entrepreneurial thinking for professional growth to counsel and coach their team.

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Tan, AL., Teo, T.W. (2024) Professional growth of STEM teachers: Viewing from entrepreneurial frame. Research in Science Education. DOI: 10.1007/s11165-024-10179-0

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Many empirical studies about STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) curriculum present problems for students to solve. This paper draws upon the data collected from the enactment of an integrated STEM curriculum to discuss problems as constitutive of problem spaces where four Grade 5 Singapore students engage with the materialities and relationships to generate solutions from these spaces. The study seeks to address the nature of the problem spaces in STEM inquiry. Derived from the emergent coding of 12 hours of lesson videos, the findings illuminated that problem spaces emerged from familiar and dissimilar contexts in the curriculum. These problem spaces embodied epistemic infrastructures and epistemic emotions within which students exercised agency to collaborate productively and learn. Implications for STEM curriculum making that foregrounded epistemic considerations, rather than outcome-based learning, were discussed. This paper helps to further the field of curriculum studies in STEM education by contributing to the theorization of STEM curriculum by applying a process lens to deepen understanding of problems as problem spaces.

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Teo, T. W. (2024) Problem spaces in STEM inquiry: a case analysis of an integrated curriculum, Journal of Curriculum Studies, DOI: 10.1080/00220272.2023.2297226

This study examined the processes that contributed to students’ aspirations for STEM careers and unpacked the relationships between students’ self-concept in science and mathematics learning, perceived parental expectations, perceptions of STEM professionals, career outcome expectations and STEM career aspirations. Structural equation modelling was used to analyse quantitative survey data of 2,477 primary and secondary school students studying in seven Asian regions (Hong Kong, Malaysia, Mainland China, Indonesia, Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore). The results demonstrated that students’ self-concept, perceptions of STEM professionals, and their career outcome expectations all significantly and positively predicted their aspirations for STEM careers. However, this study failed to establish a direct relationship or positive correlation between perceived parental expectations and STEM career aspirations. Students’ self-concept negatively predicted their career outcome expectations related to seeking parental approval. While no significant positive effects of perceived parental expectations on career aspirations were found, an indirect effect of perceived parental expectations on STEM career aspirations via career outcome expectations was observed. Moreover, career outcome expectations mediated the relationships between students’ STEM career aspirations and their perceptions of STEM professionals more strongly than self-concept. The implications of these results for STEM education are discussed.

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Lu, C., So, W.W.M., Chen, Y., Wiyarsi, A., Chiu, W.K.S., Ko, Y., Hsu, Y.S., Lee, H., Tan, A.L., & Tho, S.W. (2024). School students’ aspirations for STEM careers: the influence of self-concept, parental expectations, career outcome expectations, and perceptions of STEM professionals. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 1-18.

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In the midst of digital transformation, schools are transforming their classrooms as they prepare students for a world increasingly automated by new technologies, including artificial intelligence (AI). This paper reports on a study that piloted a new lesson package in science classrooms to introduce students to the idea of AI. Specifically, the AI-integrated science lesson package, designed by the research team, provided an extended activity that used the same context as an existing lesson activity. Three science teachers from different schools piloted the lesson package with small groups of students and provided feedback on the materials and implementation. The study has implications for curriculum writers who design lesson packages that introduce AI in science classrooms and for science teachers who wish to contribute to the development of AI literacy for teachers and the extension of the range of school science and STEM to students.

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Park, J., Teo, T.W., Teo, A., Chang, J., Huang, J.S., & Koo, S. (2023). Integrating artificial intelligence into science lessons: Teachers’ experiences and views. International Journal of STEM Education, 10. DOI: 10.1186/s40594-023-00454-3

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Most STEM curricula focus on problem-solving an authentic issue. However, design-centric STEM curricula have been addressed to a lesser extent. This article reports on findings from a case study on a group of students that have conducted a STEM inquiry project to problem-solve an authentic issue. The STEM inquiry transition to design-centric STEM was organically derived from the interactions between the teacher and students. Qualitative data analysis of the students’ interviews, written reports and reflections was conducted using a prescriptive list of codes that categorises different types of knowledge in 21st century learning. The findings showed students’ content, meta, and humanistic learning outcomes during problem-centric inquiry, and other humanistic outcomes during design-centric inquiry. Implications on integrated STEM curriculum design and contributions to the STEM education literature on the potential diverse affordances of different centricities of STEM curriculum are discussed.

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Teo, T. W., Tan, Y. L. K., & Neo, M. (2023). From problem-centric to Design-centric STEM Inquiry: Affordances and limitations. Research in Integrated STEM Education, 1(2), 216-243.

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Graphs are highly prevalent as a form of quantitative data in various science, technology, engineering and mathematics fields. Thus, graphical literacy is especially important in understanding today's world and being scientifically literate. However, students often face difficulties in graph interpretation and differ substantially in their graphical literacy. While many teachers are aware of students' difficulties in answering graph items, there is limited knowledge about how students go about attempting graph items. In this exploratory study, we investigated the eye-gaze patterns of experts and novices in graph interpretation of five science inference-based multiple-choice items requiring no prior content knowledge to problem-solve. Experts refer to science university faculty members who are currently teaching science content courses to undergraduate students. Novices refer to university undergraduates majoring in one of the science subjects. Participants' eye-gaze movements were recorded using the Dikablis eye-tracker, and their eye-gaze patterns and total glance time (s) were subsequently analyzed using the software D-Lab 3.0. Experts focused more on the question stem, whereas novices focused more on the graph. Additionally, experts tend to focus on contextual and graph data features initially, before moving to cues such as options. Conversely, novices demonstrated more sporadic search patterns. The findings contribute to the literature that compares how experts and novices' problem-solve graph items that are inference-based. An interesting future study on the eye gaze patterns and accuracy of answers is suggested from a finding. This study also provides a set of heuristics to be adopted in the teaching and learning of graph interpretation. The findings of this study have implications for teachers in the way they scaffold students' approach to answering graphical items. Additionally, students can employ heuristics to answer graphical items more effectively.

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Teo, T. W., & Peh, Z. Q. (2023). An exploratory study on eye-gaze patterns of experts and novices of science inference graph items. STEM Education, 3(3): 205-229.

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While justifications have been made for emerging technologies’ transformative potential in STEM education, the roadmap for their eventual implementation in schools is underexplored. To this end, we review research works in artificial intelligence (AI) and immersive technologies which have been applied to facilitate STEM learning. Through a systematic literature search, we identified 82 papers and analyzed them for three aspects—(1) types of emerging technologies used, (2) science education goals, and (3) implementation value. Our findings indicate that augmented reality and natural language processing are common technologies used to enhance students’ learning experiences. These technologies helped students build conceptual understanding as well as epistemic practices in science. On the other hand, mixed reality and computer vision were the least popular technologies, which may be indicative of the low maturity of these technologies. Of all the science education goals, social aspects were the least commonly tackled through emerging technologies. Moreover, 58.9% of technological applications transformed science teaching and learning through automated ways of providing individualized feedback to students involved in argumentation and reasoning activities. Finally, based on our findings, we derive three research agenda that we believe would further the eventual implementation of emerging technologies in schools.

Keywords: STEM Education· Emerging technologies· Science practices

Chng, E., Tan, A.L. & Tan, S.C. Examining the Use of Emerging Technologies in Schools: a Review of Artificial Intelligence and Immersive Technologies in STEM Education. Journal for STEM Educ Res (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41979-023-00092-y

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STEM education and research has gained popularity internationally over the last decade. However, there is a lack in specifications in existing K-12 STEM classroom observation protocols of how features of an integrated STEM experience/lesson would lead to desired outcomes and how those outcomes should be measured. To bridge this gap, we propose the development of a new integrated STEM classroom observation protocol (iSTEM protocol). This article describes the ongoing development work of the iSTEM protocol, which features two creative attempts. Firstly, the productive disciplinary engagement framework is adapted to design a classroom observation protocol that provides a coherent frame of design principles to be met to achieve desired 3-dimensional pedagogical outcomes. Secondly, interdisciplinarity of student engagement was interpreted in terms of the extent to which students take a systematic and disciplinary-based approach to make and justify decisions during STEM problem-solving. The iSTEM protocol comprises 15 items (4-point scale) rated holistically for the extents to which evidence was found in the observed lesson for (1) the 3-dimensional pedagogical outcomes of productive interdisciplinary engagement (five items) and (2) problematising, resources, authority, and accountability design principles (10 items). The accompanying iSTEM profile visually represents and communicates the strengths and inadequacies in design principles, thus providing explanations for extents of students’ productive interdisciplinary engagement. The iSTEM protocol will contribute as a research tool for STEM education researchers and as a pedagogical guide for STEM classroom teachers to improve their design of STEM learning experiences.

Ong, Y.S., Koh, J., Tan, AL. et al. Developing an Integrated STEM Classroom Observation Protocol Using the Productive Disciplinary Engagement Framework. Res Sci Educ (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-023-10110-z

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The disciplines of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) have been rising in importance in the public imagination, especially with the numerous technological upheavals that have taken place even within living memory. In development contexts, public education can be perceived as a form of uplift and a means to prepare individuals for future economic participation. From this perspective, STEM is a highly desirable component of a curriculum which might better guarantee success for societies, especially in economic terms. While this basic narrative is not fundamentally in doubt, the experience of “developed” economies can provide lessons for education development. STEM has been used in ways to amplify the human intention, often in ways that have not been sufficiently interrogated in terms of who benefits from, and who pays for the development and deployment of these technologies. While STEM in practice is deeply enmeshed in sociopolitical considerations, school versions often ignore this aspect, treating it is “not really” STEM. Given the numerous problems that have been amplified by the use and misuses of STEM knowledge, educators should reconsider the nature of STEM and seek to accurately represent its human aspects. Doing so may involve a shift away from a celebratory stance, to take a more circumspect position about the role of STEM in society. However, doing so would also provide students with the collective wisdom in decisions on what technologies ought to be used to serve what kinds of human desires. A critical and humanistic STEM education can attend to these issues, but only if educators attend to a more holistic appreciation of the role of STEM in societies. Given the existing discourses circulating about STEM “for the economy,” there is work to be done by educators to head off the worst excesses of such unbridled visions.

Tan, M. (2023). Beyond Economic Goals for STEM Education Development in the Asia Pacific. In: Lee, W.O., Brown, P., Goodwin, A.L., Green, A. (eds) International Handbook on Education Development in Asia-Pacific. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2327-1_59-1

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This integrated STEM activity on the design of a vertical farming system has biology as the lead discipline and relates to the concept of photosynthesis. Students investigated the optimal design of vertical farms that will deliver appropriate amounts of water, sunlight and carbon dioxide to plants such that there will be optimal yield. Through design, testing and refinement of their design, students appreciate the connections between photosynthesis, food supply and design.

Aik-Ling Tan, Yong Sim Ng, Jaime Koh, Yann Shiou Ong & Dominic Koh (2022) Applying concepts of plant nutrition in the real-world: Designing vertical farming systems, Science Activities, DOI: 10.1080/00368121.2022.2138249

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The benefits of STEM education for learning important knowledge, skills, and affect are widely accepted, though the former is currently absent in Singapore’s formal curriculum. This study therefore describes a model-integrated STEM curriculum at the middle-school level for developing scientific as well engineering literacy. Based on design-based inquiry (DBI), it incorporated inquiry science learning with an engineering design challenge for students to build improvised microbial fuel cells (MFC). Co-planned with science teachers from various disciplines, the curriculum was implemented as a 10-week enrichment program with two groups of Grade 8 students (N = 77) from one secondary school in Singapore. Through the use of vignettes, we show how learning about/of science and engineering occurred in the conceptual, epistemic, and social domains. In addition, students applied evidence-based reasoning, various epistemic skills, and a variety of problem-solving approaches as they iteratively improved their MFC set-ups, which often outperformed commercial kits. This proof-of-concept case study represents the first successful implementation of a STEM-integrated curriculum for middle-school students and can serve as a model for the development of similar programs elsewhere.

Tan, T.T.M.; Lee, Y.-J. Building Improvised Microbial Fuel Cells: A Model Integrated STEM Curriculum for Middle-School Learners in Singapore. Educ. Sci. 2022, 12, 417. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12060417

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Applying Dewey’s idea of practical and science inquiry and Bereiter’s idea of referent-centred and problem-centred knowledge, we examine how integrated STEM problem solving offers opportunities for learners to shuttle between practical and science inquiry and the kinds of knowledge that result from each form of inquiry. We hypothesize that connecting science inquiry with practical inquiry narrows the gap between science and everyday experiences to overcome isolation and fragmentation of science learning. In this study, we examine classroom talk as students engage in problem solving to increase crop yield.

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Tan, AL., Ong, Y.S., Ng, Y.S. et al. (2022). STEM Problem Solving: Inquiry, Concepts, and Reasoning. Sci & Educ

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This commentary is an extension to the integrated S-T-E-M Quartet Instructional Framework that has been used to guide the design, implementation and evaluation of integrated STEM curriculum. In our discussion of the S-T-E-M Quartet, we have argued for the centrality of complex, persistent and extended problems to reflect the authenticity of real-world issues and hence, the need for integrated, as opposed to monodisciplinary, STEM education.

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Teo, T. W., Tan, A. L., Ong, Y. S., & Choy, B. H. (2021). Centricities of STEM curriculum frameworks: Variations of the S-T-E-M Quartet. STEM Education, 1(3) : 141-156.

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Tan, A. L., Teo, T. W., Choy, B. H., & Ong, Y. S. (2019). The S-T-E-M Quartet. Innovation and Education, 1(3).

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According to the World Economic Forum (2016), "more than one third (36%) of all jobs across all industries" (p.21) need problem-solving as a key skill. Trilling and Fadel (2009) noted the shift from industrial to knowledge-based economies, requiring students not only to possess content knowledge but also have skills that enable them to make sense of information and synthesise useful products. Students in this century would certainly be facing more complex and multifaceted problems as well. 21st century problems can include those of a biological nature, such as persistent and complex health disorders such as diabetes mellitus.

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Koh, J. Q. D., & Tan, A.-L. (in press). Students as pharmaceutical engineers: A biology-centric STEM task. Teaching science, 65 (2) Pp. 26-32.

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When considering science education within the makerspace (engineering workshop) context, insufficient attention may be paid to the cultural models organising the learning activity in such spaces. Too often, learning is imagined to be orchestrated by instructors, and students are supposed to passively respond to activities and events planned on their behalf; even when constructivist approaches are considered, curriculum goals are seldom negotiated, let alone led by student interests. We report on a case study of school which designed a learning organisation around a makerspace, built upon a hacker model of learning.

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Tan, M. (2019). When Makerspaces Meet School: Negotiating Tensions Between Instruction and Construction. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 28(2), 75–89.

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The STEM movement is a recent phenomenon receiving worldwide attention as the darling educational project for school systems and research centres. This interest has no doubt been fuelled by economic rationales of the supposed necessity of STEM for continued material wealth, and the claims that the future will require a different sort of expertise than what we currently possess. However, not as a conservative response, but as a critical one, it is important for us to become clearer about what it is that we would want students to learn.

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Tan, M. (2018). Why STEM? Why now? Educating for technologies, or technologies for education? Learning: Research and Practice, 4(2), 203–209.

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The third wave feminist studies in science education take the stance that science teaching is political and that social change is possible through interrogating power inequalities and decentering science to balance out power. For science educators, this means developing an awareness of positionality, which I define here as a stance undertaken by an individual as she or he recognizes and makes sense of the workings of the factors and forces that constitute the politics of her/his context.

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Teo, T. W. (2015). Inside versus outside the science classroom: Examining the positionality of two female science teachers at the boundaries of science education. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 10(2), 381-402.

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The central thesis of this article is that conceptualizations of accountability systems need to be more encompassing to accommodate the current diversity of school choice. This article examines an emerging type of school that specializes in advanced STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) curriculum for gifted and academically talented students.

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Teo, T. W., & Osborne, M. (2014). Understanding accountability from a microanalysis of power dynamics in a specialised STEM school. Critical Studies in Education, 5(2), 229-245.

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Specialized science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) schools create niche areas in an attempt to attract the best students, establish the school status, and justify their privilege to valuable resources. One Singapore STEM school does this in applied science learning to differentiate its curriculum from the national prescribed curriculum.

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Tan, A.-L., & Leong, W. F. (2014). Mapping curriculum innovation in STEM schools to assessment requirements: Tensions and dilemmas. Theory into Practice, 53(1), 11-17.

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As former and current STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) school teachers in Singapore, we explore the challenges we both experienced while teaching at different STEM schools. Through this article, we make a case for the teacher preparation programs locally and around the world to give more attention to a changing education landscape with emerging specialized STEM schools.

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T. W., & Ke, K. J. (2014). Challenges in STEM teaching: Implication for preservice and inservice teacher education program. Theory Into Practice, 53(1), 18-24.

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In this article, I use the idea of dyschrony to describe the multiple disjunctures experienced in a Hispanic woman's life as she struggled to gain full membership in the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) community. Despite having earned a doctoral degree in chemistry and a teaching position in a STEM school, she was cognizant of how gender and race had marginalized her and her minority female students, making them feel like border members of the STEM community.

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Teo, T. W. (2014). Hidden currents in the STEMpipeline: Insights from the dyschronous life episodes of a minority female STEM teacher. Theory Into Practice, 53(1), 48-54.

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In this paper, we present a microanalysis of a specialized STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) high school teacher’s experience of self-initiated science inquiry curriculum reform. We examine the meanings of these two constructs: inquiry curriculum and curriculum change through the process lens of interactions, actions, and interpretations.

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Teo, T. W., & Osborne, M. (2012). Using symbolic interactionism to analyze a specialized STEM high school teacher’s experience in curriculum reform. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 7, 541-567.

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‘Potemkin schools’ is used as the phrase to capture what a US science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) public speciality high school becomes as a result of its institutional branding. By way of an examination of the efforts of one teacher drawn into school branding through his ‘inquiry-based reform’ of an Advanced Chemistry course, this paper illuminates the tensions between the rhetorical intentions to engage in curriculum innovation and the reality of constraints and conflicting goals.

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Teo, T. W. (2012). Building Potemkin schools: Science curriculum reform in a STEM school. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 44(5), 659-678.

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This article reports the survey findings of a pilot study on primary students' views, attitudes, self-concept, identity, and experiences toward STEM education. This survey was held in China Shandong Province. Applying a mixed-method approach, we administered the survey to 332 students and interviewed 8 students to learn about their views about STEM education after the activity. The survey data was analyzed using Rasch on five constructs, namely views, attitudes, self-concept, identity, and experiences in STEM learning. The transcribed interviews were analyzed using emergent coding. The findings showed that students generally responded positively to the five constructs. Students thought that problem-solving was essential, but it was still difficult for them to solve a real-world problem. They agreed that joining STEM activities could enhance their interest in STEM jobs, but they still had less confidence in pursuing a STEM job. The findings provide some insights into a pilot STEM curriculum work in a province and open up possibilities for broadening and deepening knowledge about STEM teaching and learning in China, which is at its nascent stages.

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Wang, F., Teo, T. W., & Gao, S. (2024). China primary school students' STEM views, attitudes, self-concept, identity and experiences: A pilot study in Shandong province. STEM Education, 4(4), 381-420.

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Tan, M. (2016, June). Embodied Search Processes in Creative Problem Solving: How Do People Learn in Makerspaces?. In Looi, C. K., Polman, J. L., Cress, U., & Reimann, P. (Eds.), Transforming Learning, Empowering Learners, 2, 920-925.

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While some current research has focussed on instruction in makerspaces, less attention has been paid to the processes of learning. Abductive reasoning is argued to be central to design and a key ingredient across essentially all practice-based domains. We present the results of an ongoing study in which three adult-and five student-dyads participated in a time-limited creative problem solving task.

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Tan, M., Trninic, D., & Ng, Z. Y. (2016, December). Abductive reasoning in design, tinkering and making: Studying problem solving activity in makerspaces. In Baguley, M. (Ed.), Annual Conference of the Australian Association for Research in Education, 1, 1-13.

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Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are a recent class of devices with features that make them especially suited for use in the teaching and learning of science with a strong inquiry-based and transdisciplinary approach. MFCs produce modest amounts of electricity biochemically derived from the living processes of microbes and simple kits are available for school experimentation to be constructed fairly easily.

We describe here our efforts in developing an MFC-based set of activities for use at high-school level focussing on a design-based inquiry (DBI) approach that incorporates elements of integrative science, STEM integration, and engineering design. This approach is known by many alternatives such as design-based learning and design-based science learning. We also summarise on-going work that examines the use of these activities to foster “minds-on” engagement (as opposed to mere “hands-on” action) that is a key pitfall in STEM teaching.

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Tan, T.T.M., Lee, P.P.F., Sam, C.K., & Lee, Y.J. (2013, September). Building improvised microbial fuel cells - Activities for minds-on engagement and STEM integration. Proceedings of the 41st SEFI Annual Conference 2013 - Engineering Education Fast Forward 1973 > 2013 >>, -, 161.

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Teo, T. W. (2019, May). STEM Education Frameworks for 21st Century Learning. Paper presented at Regional STEM Symposium 2019, Bangkok, Thailand.

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Tan, A. L. (2019, May). Integrated STEM Instructional Framework. Paper presented at Regional STEM Symposium 2019, Bangkok, Thailand.

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Teo, T. W. (2019, April). Xilong-SNIC Award Lecture. Riding on or against the global STEM education: The way forward for chemistry education research. Paper presented at Chemistry National Meeting Singapore, Singapore.

Tan, M. (2019). Distancing education from the economy: STEM Education for humanistic goals. THF Workshop Reports No. 7: STEM Education, 7, 15–20.

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If we consider constructionism as a pedagogical theory, it can be easy to neglect curriculum considerations—what is it we ought to communicate, and why. One approach to this problem is to be deliberate about the nature of knowledge, and the sociological implications of its differential distribution. The epistemologies of the knowledges of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) may be distinguished by its tendencies towards generalisation (S/M), or its contextual application (T/E). Understanding this distinction may be a key to being clear what is being constructed, and how constructionism may be deployed for particular goals. In this theoretical paper, I describe the foundations for such a project.

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Tan, M. (2018). Constructing what? Knowledges of the powerful, and powerful knowledges. In V. Dagiene & E. Jasute (Eds.), Constructionism 2018 (pp. 721–724). Vilnius University.

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Tan, M. (2018). Constructionism in Singapore: Widening the goals of education. In V. Dagiene & E. Jasute (Eds.), Constructionism 2018.

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Tan, M., Lim, K., Chong, S. K., Koh, H. J., Teo, B. C. (2018, January). Changing learning cultures by reevaluating existing resources: informal learning within the school context. Paper presented at International Congress on School Effectiveness and Improvement, Singapore.

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Tan, M. (2018, April). When makerspaces meet school: Considering cultural designs for learning in makerspaces. Paper presented at Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, NY, United States.

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Koh, J.Q.D., & Tan, A.-L. (2018, June). STEM tasks related to biology. Paper presented at International Science Education Conference 2018, Singapore.

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Koh, J. Q. D.,& Tan, A.-L. (2018, June). STEM tasks related to biology (Diabetes and oral medication). Paper presented at Australasian Science Education Conference 2018, Gold Coast, Australia.

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Tan, T.T.M.*, Toh, L., Teo, R.S.L., & Lee, Y.J. (2017, February). Building bug batteries: An integrated STEM curriculum package using a design-based inquiry approach. Paper presented at 2017 Korean Association for Science Education (KASE) International Conference, Seoul, Korea.

Loh, C. E., Tan., M., Ellis, M., Wilkinson, M. (2017, May). Rethinking Learning Spaces: Teaching and Learning for the 21st Century. Paper presented at Redesigning Pedagogies International Conference, Singapore.

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Tan, M. (2017, May). Making for science education: reconsidering the nature of science in science instruction. Paper presented at Redesigning Pedagogies International Conference, Singapore.

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Teo, T. W. (2017, September). Understanding the experiences of specialised STEM school students. Paper presented at British Education Research Association, Brighton, United Kingdom.

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While STEM is gaining steam in many countries, there are relatively few evaluation studies that yield deep and comprehensive insights into the impact of STEM programmes on participants. As such, this paper reports an evaluation study of a STEM programme to find out which aspects of the participants’ views were impacted. Using a single group pre- and post-programme survey design, we examined the impact of the STEM programme on students’: (1) interest to participate in STEM, (2) attitudes towards STEM, (3) self-concept about STEM learning, (4) STEM-related identities, and (5) STEM career decisions. The participants were female students Grades 7, 9 and 10 (aged 13-16) from an all-girls secondary school in Singapore. All measures were validated and calibrated using Rasch analysis. The dependent T-tests results on the measures showed significant increase in Grade 7 students’ attitudes, self-concept, STEM-identities, and career decisions. Grade 9 students’ showed significant increase in self-concept; while Grade 10 students showed significant increase in all the five constructs. Interestingly, the result show a significant decrease in Grade 9 students’ interest to participate in STEM. The Wright distribution maps from the Rasch analyses were used to further explicate the perceptions of the students. These insights provide useful information for teachers and researchers in evaluating the outcomes of the STEM program.

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Teo, T. W., Goh, W. P. J., & Yeo, L. W. (2017, November). An evaluation study of the impact of a STEM programme for girls. Paper presented at Hong Kong Educational Research Association International Conference, Hong Kong, Hong Kong (China).

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Teo, T. W. (2017, June). Feminist Science Inquiry in the STEM Education of Girls. Paper presented at Redesigning Pedagogy International Conference, Singapore.

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Wee, H. S., Tan, M. (2015, September). MAKING MAKERS: DEVELOPING A CULTURE OF INNOVATION & EXPLORATION IN A SINGAPOREAN SCHOOL. Paper presented at Fablearn 2015, Palo Alto, CA, United States.

Tan, M. (2015, January). It looks like fun, but what are they learning: Generating curriculum principles for makerspaces in school contexts. Paper presented at Redesigning Pedagogies: Leaders, Values, and Citizenship in the 21st Century, Singapore.

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Tan, M., Lee, S. S., Lai, C., & Yeo, R. (2015, June). Makerspaces without space: Rethinking makerspaces in Singapore. Paper presented at Redesigning Pedagogies: Leaders, Values, and Citizenship in the 21st Century, Singapore.

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Teo, T. W. (2012, March). Examining power and accountability issues in a U.S. STEM school. Paper presented at National Association of Research in Science Teaching, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States.

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Teo, T. W. (2011, October). Accountability and power in a U.S. specialized high school. Paper presented at Bergamo Conference on Curriculum Theory and Classroom Practice, Dayton, Ohio, United States.

Teo, T. W. (2011, April). “Chemistry is chemistry!” Women’s differing standpoints at a specialized STEM school. Paper presented at American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States.

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Since the “alphabet soup period” almost 60 years ago, the science education fraternity has been confronted with the challenges of science curriculum reform. Science education policy makers, teachers and researchers struggle to understand why science reform often fails to succeed. Professor Larry Cuban at Stanford University described this phenomenon as the “inexorable cycles of school reform” alike “a large weather front of uncertain origin moving erratically and unpredictably across a region” (2011).

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Teo, T. W. (2019, May). THF Workshop Reports No. 7 STEM Education: An Overview Challenges in the implementation of STEM in classrooms, 7, 35-42.

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Teo, T. W. (2018, November). The Education University of Hong Kong, Centre for Excellence in Learning and Teaching Newsletter STEM Education: From the perspective of a Singapore STEM educator, 3, 11-13.

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Using technology to break out of the constraints of learning science through practical work and at the same time reinventing science practical work as a vehicle for applied learning in real-world contexts.

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Tan, T.T.M. (2018, March). Learning@NIE. Internet Sensation! Using IoT-connected Sensors for Applied Learning., 2018, 38-39.

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The shift in science education towards the aim of developing broader scientific literacy is well underway. It is recognised that there is a need to integrate learning across the science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) domains in order to achieve this aim. There is also a need to equip our students with the skills necessary for the future and—for some—the eventual progression into these fields as technical or knowledge workers (PCAST, 2010; Honey, Pearson & Schweingruber, 2014).

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Tan, T. (2017, November). OER Knowledge Bites. Approaching STEM integration., Volume 5, 13-14.

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This is a proposal for a research study about the Singapore Committee for United Nations Women, Girls To Pioneer programme, which is aimed at promoting more women and girls in STEM fields. The programme adopts feminist pedagogies in actively engaging girls to participate in diverse STEM activities so that positive attitudes towards STEM may be developed.

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Teo, T. W., Yeo, L. W., & Goh, W. P. J. (2018, May). Understanding How the Girls to Pioneer Programme affect Students’ Attitudes Towards STEM and Shaper Their STEM-related Identities, 23.

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Teo, T. W., Tan, A.-L., Ong, Y. S., & Choy, B . H. (2023, February). Democratisation of STEM Education as a Social Lever: An Actualisation of ASEAN Centrality (A synthesis report), 27.

Teo, T. W., & Ong, Y. S. (2022, October). Temasek Foundation ' Nanyang Technological University (National Institute of Education) Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Leaders Programme in Asia, Final Programme Report, 29